Up in Arms: Heraldry in a Medieval Church
The status of St Audoen’s Church as one of the oldest buildings in continuous use anywhere in Ireland offers an opportunity for the visitor to find relics of our shared past which are well-preserved and still in their original surroundings. This Dublin City parish church’s association with Ireland’s ruling elite of the Norman, Tudor and Stuart eras means that many of those relics bear witness to the principle concerns of that ruling class. In memorialising the dead within St Audoen’s Church they aspired to leave an imposing and lasting reminder of their prestige when alive, and the use of heraldry was central to this.
Coats of arms have ancient origins, going back to the need for fighters on the battlefield to identify each other, and the ‘coat’ was initially just a coloured cloak worn over armour. The Normans were the first to develop a formal code of heraldry and by the 12th century, when St Audoen’s Church was built, many Norman lords had their own distinctive coat of arms. Gradually, heraldry became more of a status symbol for the nobility than a martial necessity, and the heraldic devices came to denote social rank and particular family traits or achievements. In the reign of King Henry V (1413-22) the use of heraldic arms without royal permission was outlawed, and in the 16th century the role of ‘Ulster King of Arms’ was established to regulate the design and granting of arms in Ireland, now succeeded within the Republic of Ireland by the office of Chief Herald of Ireland.
Each component of the coat of arms has a specific name and significance; the terms ‘dexter’ and ‘sinister’ refer to the right and left sides of the arms, but as seen from the point of view of the person holding the shield rather than of the observer. Over time, the central shield of a family’s arms was often divided into halves or quarters to incorporate the arms of a notable maternal family line. The inclusion and the style of a helmet above the shield also had a symbolic interpretation, as did each of the colours used in the design. A motto representing the values or qualities of the family was sometimes added on a banner beneath the shield, usually in Latin, French or Gaelic.
Those arms granted to English and Anglo-Irish lords could officially only be passed on to the eldest male heir. The transfer of these arms was a highly ritualised affair carried out by the Ulster King of Arms during the funeral of the deceased. The National Library of Ireland holds a collection of bound volumes from the ‘Ulster’s Office’ which detail these proceedings all the way back to the 16th century. These volumes were intended simply to keep a heraldic record of who was legally permitted to use arms, but they have become an invaluable source for genealogical research, not least in relation to the many elaborate funerals held at St Audoen’s Church in the 16th and 17th centuries.
While waiting to inherit a coat of arms, the designated heir was allowed to use the arms with the addition of a stripe (or ‘label’) across the top. Younger sons, who were unlikely to inherit, often used a version with additional symbols representing their place in the family pecking order. For example, a crescent represented the second son, a star the third son, a bird the fourth son and a ring the fifth son. A diamond-shaped ‘lozenge’ coat of arms generally represented the unmarried daughter of a family patriarch. The Ussher family – one of medieval Dublin’s leading families – provides a good example of the evolution of variant coats of arms through the generations. Whilst only one living person was allowed to use a coat of arms of English origin, by contrast coats of arms for Gaelic Irish clans were granted collectively, meaning that any family member could use them.
So, what can St Audoen’s Church tell us about the use of heraldry in Ireland during this period?
Although parts of the site have fallen into ruin at various stages of its eight-century history, the highly ornate Stuart-era memorials to the Sparke-Brice and Duffe families are wonderfully preserved in spite of their delicate plaster construction. In monuments overflowing with symbolic emblems it is the coats of arms which are placed at the pinnacle of each, representing the pride these parishioners felt about their lineage. And while any pigments and inscriptions have long-since faded away, these carefully sculpted arms help us to confirm who the memorials were built in memory of.
Memorials of a very similar design to the above were erected within St Audoen’s Church in memory of the families of Alderman Edmond Malone and Mayor Nicholas Weston, but exposure to the elements has left almost no surviving trace. An earlier generation of the Malones were memorialised in a smaller, though still highly intricate, wall panel which, due to its construction from stone, has lasted somewhat longer.
Another stone panel from this era on display inside the visitor centre is linked to Mayor Christopher SeÞgrave, who died in 1589, but it has not fared so well. The oldest identifiable coat of arms in the church is the simple stone tablet in a window recess next the the altar, still used for worship. It depicts the Duffe family arms with the letters ‘T D’.
This is believed to memorialise Thady Duffe, who was Mayor of Dublin in 1548. His name derives from an ancestor, Tadhg Dubh O’Farrell, from present-day County Longford, and in fact the Duffe and O’Farrell arms are identical.
Less grandiose were the ‘ledger’ tombstones which were set into the floor of the church. Fragments of up to 100 of these ledger stones can still be found around the site, but due to the wear and tear of centuries of footsteps only 23 remain even partially legible. Nevertheless, a handful of these retain distinct coats of arms at the centre of their design.
Although styles changed and heraldry in tombstones became less fashionable, some examples of coats of arms survive from the early 18th century. A rare bronze wall plaque commemorates Sir John Peyton and his wife Lady Rebecca Peyton, who died in 1720 and 1730, respectively. Here, the use of Peyton’s arms acknowledges his knighthood in recognition for his services as military Governor of Ross Castle.
Probably the most famous coat of arms in Dublin to this day is the three castle gates with flaming beacons against a blue shield – the official arms of the city. This has been a symbol of Dublin since the 13th century, but the design was given official status in 1607 by Daniel Molyneux, Ulster King of Arms, who is buried in the vaults of St Audoen’s Church. The arms form the centre-piece of the church’s stained-glass window in reference to the innumerable Mayors and Lord Mayors of Dublin who worshipped in St Audoen’s and found their final resting place in its vaults.
By the middle of the 18th century St Audoen’s Church was no longer associated with Dublin’s high society, and that social tier was itself to become largely irrelevant following the Act of Union. However, the decline in its fortunes most likely saved it from being demolished and rebuilt to modern specifications by some wealthy benefactor, and thus we now find inside its walls a trove of architectural gems stretching all the way back to the late 12th century.
The good news is that it is open to the public, free of charge, each year (currently March to November, 7 days a week). Visitors will find all of the above information and more at the visitor centre reading desk; but for the full immersive experience ask the guides for a guided tour of the site – also free of charge!
Her-story and Her-itage
Women's history, their stories, and their achievements, are often layered within or hidden behind the stories and accolades of men.
We are finally entering a period where women's stories are highlighted and celebrated, and the below names are just a few of the remarkable women associated with our historic heritage sites.
This is Herstory
Margaret O’Sullivan – Garinish Island
*1908 – 1999*
Margaret “Maggie” O’Sullivan lived most of her life on Garinish Island. She began working for the Bryce family in 1926 when she was still a teenager, acting as the housekeeper, attending to high-profile guests to the island, including most of the Irish Presidents who were serving during her lifetime.
Margaret was a fiercely independent woman, rowing her boat back and forth to the mainland to do her shopping and attend mass every Sunday with her dog. Margaret lived on the island until 1998, and was the last permanent resident of Garinish Island.
In 1992 she was recognised by Glengarriff Tourism & Development Association for her contribution to tourism in the area.
Nancy Wyse Power – Custom House Visitor Centre
*1889 – 1963*
Nancy Wyse Power was a member of Cumann na mBan (1915), the Gaelic League (1901), and a Civil Servant. She received her BA in Celtic Studies from UCD, and continued to do a PhD in Germany on Celtic Philology.
Nancy was heavily involved in the Nationalist cause, helping to deliver messages during the 1916 Easter Rising, and supporting the families affected by the Rising in the subsequent years. She was appointed honorary secretary of Cumann na mBan in 1917.
In 1923 she began working for the Department of Industry and Commerce, and in 1932 was personally requested to be the private secretary of Seán T. O’Kelly, within the Department of Local Government and Public Health at the Custom House.
Nancy was one of the first female Principal Officers in the Free State civil service, and used her position to advocate for equal rights for women in the civil service.
Elizabeth O’Farrell – Kilmainham Gaol Museum
Elizabeth O’Farrell’s story has been hidden from history for years. She was literally erased from key events in 1916, airbrushed from the photos as though she were never there.
It is now known and accepted that Elizabeth and Julia Grenan were in a relationship, living with each other for most of their lives, and doing almost everything together. The two joined multiple organisations including the Gaelic League, the Irish Women’s Franchise League, the Irish Women Workers’ Union, and Inghinidhe na hÉireann. They were taken under the wing of Markievicz and trained in the use of firearms.
In 1916, Elizabeth was assigned to the Irish Citizen Army, delivering messages to Athenry, Spiddal, and Galway City, before returning back to Dublin to medically attend to the injured, and deliver ammunition from the GPO to other garrisons in the city. Both she and Grenan cared for James Connolly after he was shot.
Elizabeth was picked by Patrick Pearse to discuss surrender terms with the British military, and was sent out into heavy fire, armed with only a white flag and a Red Cross symbol. It is she who stands alongside Pearse to deliver the unconditional surrender to General Lowe. Lowe assured Elizabeth that she would not be imprisoned, but after the surrender she was strip-searched and held in both Ship Street Barracks and Kilmainham Gaol. Lowe ordered her immediate release upon hearing of her imprisonment.
During the War of Independence both Elizabeth and Julia delivered dispatches to the IRA, and were strongly anti-treaty, helping to raise funds for the families of anti-treaty prisoners.
In 1967 a plaque was unveiled at Holles Street Hospital, where Elizabeth once worked as a mid-wife, and a foundation to support nurses in their postgrad studies was created. In 2012 City Quay Park, where Elizabeth was born, was renamed Elizabeth O’Farrell Park.
Both Elizabeth O’Farrell and Julia Grenan are buried beside each other in Glasnevin Cemetery.
Gwendolen Guinness, The Countess of Iveagh – Farmleigh House & Gardens
*1881 – 1966*
Lady Gwendolen Guinness was one of few women of her time to be elected as a Member of Parliament in the House of Commons. She won her seat in the Southend-On-Sea by-election in 1927, which she kept until 1935.
Though at times Gwendolen was reduced to a fashion icon rather than a parliamentarian, with one report by The Daily Telegraph in 1934 stating that people were ‘eager to see her fashionable clothes’, Gwendolen Guinness remained steadfast in her fight for and defence of women’s rights.
Dr. Kathleen Lynn – Kilmainham Gaol Museum
Dr. Kathleen Lynn was involved in multiple movements throughout her life, including the suffragist, labour, and nationalist movements.
She was a key player during the 1916 Easter Rising, having taught the members of Cumann na mBan first aid, and was Chief Medical Officer of the Irish Citizen Army during the rebellion. She was imprisoned for a time in Kilmainham Gaol for her part in the Rising.
However, her revolutionary involvement is just one side of Kathleen Lynn’s story. She studied in Manchester, Dusseldorf, Dublin, and the US, and was a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1909. From 1910- 1916 Lynn was the first female resident doctor in the Royal Victoria Eye & Ear Hospital.
She is remembered for her work in St. Ultan’s Hospital for infants and their mothers, and she helped further international research on TB eradication.
Hilda Grove Annesley & Sylvia Cooke Collis – Annes Grove Gardens
*1869 – 1961* – Hilda
Hilda Grove Annesley, nee Macnaghten, married Richard Grove Annesley in 1907 and together they were responsible for creating the paradise garden of Annes Grove near Castletownroche in North Cork. For over fifty years she was the constant presence at Annes Grove welcoming family, friends and visitors from far and near. She was happiest when out riding – she rode side saddle all her life and was admired as a very fine horsewoman.
In 1912, she wrote to Dick (Richard) telling him if she should die suddenly or killed out hunting that he was not to grieve too much as “we must all die someday and I have no wish to live to be older than 50”. She did in fact live until 1961 at the age of 92. Through her diaries and memoirs Hilda left behind an account of country living from the first half of the 20th century.
*1900 – 1973* – Sylvia
Daughter of Hilda Grove Annesley from her first marriage to Henry Cecil Phillips, Sylvia Cooke Collis was born in Glanmire, Co Cork but spent most of her youth in Annes Grove after her mother married Richard. Like her mother she loved the outdoor life and was involved with horses, dogs and fishing (her step father was a very keen fisherman). She also developed an interest in art and studied under John Power at the Crawford Municipal School of Art and later trained with Mainie Jellett, with whom she became friends.
She was good friends with another famous neighbour in North Cork, Elizabeth Bowen, who encouraged Sylvia further in her endeavours. Sylvia exhibited widely in the mid-twentieth century and was known as a modern artist, influenced by Jellett herself and the Fauve movement. No longer a household name, her art nevertheless has stood the test of time and may be due a revival.
- courtesy of Aileen Spitere
Countess Constance Markievicz – Kilmainham Gaol Museum
*1868 – 1927*
Constance Markievicz was heavily involved in the revolutionary fight for Irish freedom and in Irish politics. Her involvement in the republican movement dates to 1908, when she joined both Sinn Féin and Inghinidhe na hÉireann – both of which she became an executive member of in 1911.
Markievicz was sympathetic to the workers cause during the Lock-out in 1913, and set-up soup kitchens. She was the honorary treasurer of the Irish Citizen Army, and was responsible for the merging of Inghinidhe na hÉireann with Cumann na mBan.
During the 1916 Easter Rising, Markievicz was second-in-command to Michael Mallin at Stephen’s Green/Royal College of Surgeons, a role for which she was imprisoned for 14 months. She was held in Kilmainham Gaol for a short period, before being transferred to Aylesbury Prison.
Markievicz was the very first woman elected to Westminster in 1918, but as a member of Sinn Féin, and someone who did not recognise the British Parliament, she refused to take her seat. In March 1919 she became minister for labour in the first Dáil Éireann.
Constance Markievicz is now buried in Glasnevin Cemetery.
Margaret Pearse – Pearse Museum, St Enda’s Park
*1857 – 1932*
Margaret Pearse was a staunch nationalist and elected member of Dáil Éireann in 1921; vocally Anti-Treaty, Margaret was dedicated to keeping the memory of her two sons (Willie and Patrick Pearse) alive in everything that she did after the executions in 1916.
Margaret raised funds to keep the school Patrick set-up, St. Enda’s, running for as long as possible, travelling to America in 1924, raising $10,000 while there.
Margaret Pearse was given a state funeral upon her death, and is now buried in Glasnevin Cemetery.
Lady Anne Wandesforde, The Countess of Ormond – Kilkenny Castle
*1754 – 1830*
Lady Anne, born Susan Frances Elizabeth (Anne) Wandesford, was heiress to the family mines in Castlecomer.
She married into the Butler family, and focused on healthcare within the Castlecomer area, organising the set-up of a fever hospital and infirmary during the 19th century.
Lady Louisa Conolly – Castletown House & Parklands
*1743 – 1821*
Lady Louisa dedicated the later years of her life, after her husband’s death in 1803, to charitable works.
She established a female charter school, as well as industrial schools were children could be trained in various trades. She also had a church built, and believed that both Catholics and Protestants should be educated together.
Angelica Kauffman – Rathfarnham Castle & Dublin Castle
*1741 – 1807*
Renowned neoclassical-style painter Angelica Kauffman is famous for her portraits and history paintings, capturing some of the most influential people of her time through her art.
A founding member of the Royal Academy in London, Kauffman’s talents were highly sought after by the elite, including the Earl of Ely of Rathfarnham Castle. She visited Ireland briefly in 1771, and some of her portraits of the Loftus family still reside in the Castle, including one of the Earl himself, Henry Loftus (see below).
Some of her historical paintings can also be viewed within the State Apartments of Dublin Castle.
Grace O’Malley, The Pirate Queen – Clare Island & Kildavnet Castle
*1530 – 1603*
The legendary Pirate Queen, Grace O’Malley, was a formidable woman, asserting her leadership in a man’s world.
From a young age Grace showed determination, cutting her hair short to look like a boy so that she could board her father’s ship, when he refused her access. This action earned her the nickname of ‘Gráinne Mhaol – Grace the Bald’.
Her first husband, Domhnall O’Flaherty, engaged in ongoing fighting against the Joyce’s for control of Hen’s Castle in Co. Galway. After he was ambushed and killed by his enemies in 1565, Grace defended the castle, refusing to surrender to her enemies, and forcing them to retreat.
Grace became known as one of the most feared sea captains in Ireland, commanding a fleet of ships and an army of 200 men.
Sir Nicholas Malby, Governor of Connaught, said of her at the time that she ‘thinketh herself to be no small lady’ – she was not one to hide her light under a bushel.
Sir Henry Sidney proclaimed Grace ‘a notorious woman in all the coasts of Ireland’.
Today, many OPW sites are associated with Grace O’Malley, including Kildavnet Castle which bears her name ‘Granuaile’s Tower’, and Clare Island where she is said to be buried.
Portrait Miniatures and the Irish Country House
A catalogue of the collection of portrait miniatures donated by Edmund Corrigan to the Irish Georgian Society (IGS) for display at Castletown and Doneraile Court has been published by the IGS in October, 2024. It provides comprehensive catalogue descriptions on the sitters in the portraits and the houses they resided at. Author Kevin Mulligan has unearthed vast quantities of information that connects miniature to miniature, family to family, house to house adding significantly to our understanding of the interlocking family and social histories of Irish country
houses. Paul Caffrey, leading expert on miniatures notes ‘few historic family collections of miniatures survived in Ireland making this a truly remarkable collection of national importance’.
In addition to the detailed catalogue entries and images of sitters there are carefully sourced illustrations of the houses the sitters lived in. The watercolours, pen and ink drawings and paintings of the houses, topographical views and landscapes work especially
well. Kevin weaves a magically interwoven account throughout the 221 catalogue entries.
William Laffan contributes a fascinating essay on the history of portrait miniatures which sets the context to the significance of Edmund’s collection and the links to literature are particularly
effective.
The background to the making and researching of the catalogue goes back to 2016 when miniatures of the Boyle and Fitzgerald families were presented on loan to Castletown and went on
display in the Print Room. The following summer Donough Cahill, Director of the Irish Georgian Society (IGS) raised the possibility of a substantial miniature collection being made available for Castletown on long-term permanent loan. The Collection was to be donated to the IGS by Edmund Corrigan. Following agreement with the Director of National Historic Properties, Rosemary Collier, Dorothea Depner and I progressed plans for the Edmund Corrigan Collection of portrait miniatures, in association with the
Castletown Foundation, to be housed at Castletown. By the middle of 2018 the IGS was getting ready to transfer the miniatures and it was agreed that a small selection of the miniatures would be housed at Doneraile Court – Edmund had fundraised for the earlier conservation works at Doneraile Court
in the 1980’s and wanted to support OPW’s work now in presenting suitable and interesting collections at Doneraile. Ludovica Neglie made the first inventory of the collection investigating provenance with Edmund.
The Chairman of the Castletown Foundation (CF) David Sheehan together with the late Jeanne Meldon, Director and former Deputy Chair of the CF commenced work on how best to display
the miniature collection. Pat Murray, another Director of the CF, had been supporting Edmund in his collecting and together plans started to come together. David knew that Edmund was clear the
style of presentation was to be Country House and David Sheehan designed a scheme for the Lady Kildare Room. Conservation of the Lady Kildare Room and bringing it into visitor tours had been
under discussion for some time. The arrival of Edmund’s collection and the challenge of how best to display it was the catalyst to the conservation project. Jeanne had a wonderful knowledge of the families and the houses and gave much time and effort into organising the groups by family and houses. David
Hartley at Castletown took control of the care of the miniatures working to David’s layouts for the room and Sandra Murphy took charge of ensuring the guiding team prepared for interpreting
the collection to visitors. Joanne Bannon, Historic Collections Registrar, led on the loan agreement documentation between OPW and the IGS in line with the Museum Standards Programme of Ireland (MSPI). The cases for display of the miniatures were at the house including the Luggala bookcase from the Green Drawing Room, upcycled unused frames and furniture from the Farmyard. It all combined to make a most suitable receptacle for the collection. A beautiful porcelain desk set donated by the late
Della Howard through the London Chapter of the IGS is part of the displays in the Lady Kildare Room and it was the late John Redmill and John Berger who presented that to Castletown. In parallel work was beginning to take off on the upgrade and conservation of the Ground Floor at Doneraile Court.
It was so special that Edmund could be present when Doneraile Court – a house he had fundraised for and donated several paintings to – re-opened in June 2019. He could see the interiors come back to life with two stunning framed displays of his portrait miniatures. It was another day of great celebration when in the final few days – unknowns to us - pre Covid lockdown – we gathered on 6 March, 2020 to view the collection installed in the Lady Kildare’s Room together with the celebration to mark the
acquisition of the Duchess of Leinster portrait by Reynolds – a joint purchase by the OPW/CF and the Friends of the National Collections of Ireland (FNCI). It was a delight to see Edmund enjoy seeing the miniatures presented so magnificently. When the second phase of Doneraile Court was completed we were delighted that Edmund was able to view the displays in May 2023, just months before his untimely death. The two interiors of Castletown and Doneraile fittingly bookend the Foreword to
the newly published catalogue on the Edmund Corrigan Collection. A job well done and a fitting testimony to excellent outcomes for Ireland’s cultural heritage from the careful nurturing of private philanthropy with charitable and public institutions. The Edmund Corrigan Collection at Castletown and
Doneraile Court is something we can all be proud of.
From the Blasket Islands to Springfield Massachusetts A Well Worn Path
For the past twenty five years, a group of Dingle Peninsula businesses make their way to Springfield Massachusetts for the
Big E – the Eastern States Exposition – a three week event that draws 1.7 million visitors. It is a well worn path in both directions and very much a meeting of friends.
Springfield has an amazing connection with West Kerry and the Blaskets, very much evidenced by the gathering of the city’s great and good, including many Blasket descendants, at a recent exhibition opening in Springfield Museums which celebrated the
heritage and impact of the Blasket islanders in that part of the world. The temporary exhibit was the first fruit of a Memorandum of Understanding signed last May between the OPW and the Museum. The guest of honour was the remarkable Mairéad Kearney-Shea, at 102 years young, longtime Springfield
resident and the only surviving woman born on the Great Blasket.
That the OPW and the Blasket Centre in particular would be represented at such an occasion and at the Big E is a natural expression of the deep and very much current ties of history, kinship and friendship that are so important to nurture today. My visit, which followed a similar trip by then Minister Patrick O’Donovan in September 2023, allowed me to reach out and thank places such as the John Boyle O’Reilly Club, the Sons of
Erin and the Irish Cultural Centre of New England who regularly organise tours to Ireland and see the Blasket Centre as a
highpoint of their trip.
My Springfield trip coincided with that of a Kerry County Council delegation led by Cathaoirleach Breandán Fitzgerald and Irish Consul General, Sighle Fitzgerald. This significant combined representation was noted and greatly appreciated by
our Western Massachusetts friends, at all levels.
Springfield is an intrinsic part of the Blasket story. Waves of Blasket emigrants sought a place where they could deal with the enormous dislocation of leaving their native home in a place where they could at least share their language and culture and have a supportive community network. That difficult transition and their subsequent success in their new country is the foundation of a shared and invaluable heritage that is enormously
important – on both sides – now and into the future.
The Oldest Grave at the Rock of Cashel
Despite the Rock of Cashel being a singularly unique collection of medieval buildings perched dramatically on a natural limestone outcrop, questions from visitors often concern not the buildings, but the graveyard. While people are always intrigued to hear
that the Rock of Cashel is still an active burial ground, one of the most common questions we receive is ‘which is the oldest grave?’ The answer to this question is not as simple as it might seem. While graves from the eighteenth and nineteenth century
can be seen dotted throughout the graveyard, older graves can be found inside Cormac’s Chapel and St. Patrick’s Cathedral, although most are not in their original location.
Within Cormac’s Chapel sits a large sarcophagus of early-twelfth century date. Thought to be the tomb of Tadhg Mac Carthaig, the brother of the chapel’s builder, Cormac Mac Carthaig, it now
sits against the west wall of the chapel.
Its original location is unknown, but it was likely placed in a recess in an earlier church on the site that no longer stands.
Elaborately carved with intertwining animals in the Urnes style, it likely dates to the mid-1120s, shortly before the construction of the chapel between 1127 and 1134. However, excavations carried out in and around Cormac’s Chapel in 1992 and 1993 revealed graves possibly as old as the sixth century which could have formed part of an early royal graveyard at the site connected to the traditional kings of Cashel, the Eóganachta. These, then, would be the oldest graves on the site. However, none of these are marked above ground level.
Several medieval grave-slabs can also be found inside St. Patrick’s Cathedral. In the early-nineteenth century Archdeacon Henry Cotton made an effort to collect the better examples of carved stone at the Rock and gather them together within the confines
of the cathedral. Many of these are illegible but the earliest identifiable slab dates to 1503 and belongs to a Julius O’Kearny, an attendant of St. Patrick’s Cathedral. This, then, would be the
earliest identifiable grave with a date attached to it. A second slab, located in a side chapel in the north transept, dates to 1506 and belongs to Patrick Connolly, Burgess of Cashel, and Joanna
Wale, his wife. Several others date to the early-sixteenth century including the grave-slab of the Archdeacon of Cashel, Robertus Hackett, who died on 10th December, 1510. However, one small fragment of a grave-slab in this area may date to the late-thirteenth or early fourteenth century. All that remains is the bottom of the slab which shows a pair of pointed shoes, and the bottom of a cloak that reaches the figures ankles. While no inscription survives, the style makes it clear that it is from this time period. Another slab, again from the late-thirteenth or
early-fourteenth century, is hidden away inside a mural passage in the nave of the cathedral, where it has been reused as a
lintel stone. Considering this portion of St. Patrick’s Cathedral dates to the late thirteenth century, the slab likely dates to this period or earlier as there is no evidence that the slab was inserted later.
In the two side-chapels of the north transept, are the remains of sixteenth century altar-tombs, again collected together by Archdeacon Cotton. In the north side-chapel, the remains of an altar-tomb depicting various saints can be seen, produced by the famed O’Tunney school of sculpture. In the south side-chapel of the north transept are the very well-preserved remains of a second altar-tomb, again depicting saints, this time produced by the Thurles school of sculpture. While much of these tombs have now been lost, they likely had a full effigy on top. These may not
be the earliest tomb sculptures to have survived on site, but they are certainly some of the finest.
With graves dating back possibly as far as the sixth century, and the earliest identifiable grave-slab dating to 1503, the graveyard continues to intrigue visitors. The questions we receive show a desire from visitors for a human connection to the site, one that goes beyond history and architecture, and one that connects people to those for whom the Rock of Cashel was part of
everyday life.
Mainistreacha na Maighe
D’fhág fás aníos sa chúlchríoch d’eagráin ársa Rosserk agus Mainistir na Maighne i gCo. Mhaigh Eo tionchar ar leith orm, agus géarfheasacht ó bhí mé i mo óige ar Éirinn ársa. Tá radharc suaimhneach agus pictiúrtha ag an dá fhoirgneamh, atá caomhnaithe anois ag Oifig na nOibreacha Poiblí, agus an Mhuaidh thart. Suíonn na fothracha ársa seo i dtírdhreach ina bhfuil sainchomharthaí tíre stairiúla cosúil le galláin, fothrach chaisleáin ón 13ú haois trasna na habhann agus Tobar Naofa in aice láimhe, Tobar Mhuire, atá lonnaithe i bhfoirgneamh beag cloiche a tógadh i 1799. Seo é an tírdhreach atá ann. a mhúnlaigh mé, spreag mo ghrá don ailtireacht agus mo mheas ar cheardaíocht an ama atá thart.
Bunaíodh Mainistir Rosserk sa chúigiú haois déag ag an ceann feadhna de na Joyces, teaghlach cumhachtach de bhunadh na Breataine Bige, a lonnaigh i gConnachta sa tríú haois déag. Bhí pobal bráithre den Tríú Ord Naomh Proinsias nó na Treasaigh lonnaithe i mainistir Rosserk. Go neamhghnách is éard a bhí san ordú seo fir agus mná pósta ar mhian leo saol Proinsiasach a bheith acu, ach mar gheall ar a stádas pósta, ní raibh siad in ann dul isteach sa Chéad Ordú (na bráithre) nó sa Dara Ord (mná rialta). Sular tógadh an mhainistir, tugadh ‘Ros Serce’ ar an gceantar, a ainmníodh i ndiaidh naomh baineann míorúilteach darbh ainm Searc, deisceabal agus deirfiúr líomhnaithe le Naomh Pádraig a raibh cónaí air ann. Tá tuairimíocht ann gur tharla bunú na mainistreach ag suíomh Rosserk áit éigin idir 1400 agus 1441 mar go raibh pátrúnacht shaibhir ag na Tertiaries in Éirinn sna meánaoiseanna. Tá na foirgnimh grúpáilte thart ar chlabhstra oscailte, tá seomraí boghtach ar thrí thaobh agus séipéal ar an taobh eile agus cloigtheach ar a bharr. Bhí an chistin, an halla bia agus na suanliosanna suite ar leibhéal an chéad urláir. Tá piscina dúbailte slán ag an mainistir le haingil snoite i gcloch ar a bharr, is cuas é seo le báisín cloiche chun soithí naofa a níochán a úsáidtear le linn searmanais reiligiúnacha. I ndeireadh na séú haoise déag, rinneadh mainistreacha Rosserk, na Maighe agus Ráth Fáin a mhilleadh agus a dhó ag Sir Richard Bingham, Gobharnóir Sasanach Chonnacht.
Faoi na 1800idí bhí Rosserk tréigthe le breis agus dhá chéad bliain agus bhí ballaí in go leor áiteanna ar tí titim amach. Sna 1880idí tugadh an mhainistir faoi chúram Choimisinéirí na nOibreacha Poiblí a chinntigh go raibh na ballaí daingnithe, go raibh obair chloiche pointeáilte, agus go raibh rianaireacht fuinneoige athchóirithe, na bunphíosaí a fuarthas sa smionagar mórthimpeall. Rinneadh oibreacha ar an Séadchomhartha Náisiúnta seo i Ros Earc in 1883, faoi stiúir an ailtire, an tUasal Thomas Newenham Deane R.H.A.
Níos faide síos an abhainn i dtreo sráidbhaile ársa Chill Ala, tá fothrach mór agus mórthaibhseach Mhainistir Mhaighne. Níos faide siar ó Abhainn na Muaidhe, tá an Mhaighean suite i bpáirceanna glasa sócúla, is féidir a thúr ard a fheiceáil na mílte timpeall. Bhunaigh Mac William de Burgo Mainistir Phroinsiasach na Maighe sa bhliain 1455, agus choisric Easpag Chill Ala an foirgneamh i 1462. Bhí leabharlann luachmhar ag Maighne tráth mar scoil cúige de chuid oird na bProinsiasach, mar aon le hotharlann agus muileann chun arbhair a mheilt. Tá clabhstra iata dea-chaomhnaithe i gcroílár an fhoirgnimh, cosán iata ina raibh na bráithre ag guí agus ag machnamh. Freastalaíodh freisin ar na gnéithe is bunúsaí de shaol na mainistreach laistigh de bhallaí na mainistreach, lena n-áirítear cistin agus halla bia, sacraistí, teach caibidle agus na suanliosanna. Ba é Sir Richard Bingham, Gobharnóir Sasanach Chonnacht, a dódh an mhainistir sa bhliain 1590. D’fhág na bráithre tar éis géarleanúint a bheith ag Bingham, agus tháinig tailte na mainistreach i seilbh Edmund Barrett. Níos déanaí ba le baintreach Sasanach é, lig sí do na bráithre filleadh ar an Mhainistir i 1606, áit ar fhan siad go dtí 1618. Bhí Moyne faoi úinéireacht teaghlach Lindsay ina dhiaidh sin a scar cuid den mhainistir le púdar gunna. Sa bhliain 1718, tháinig an mhainistir i seilbh mhuintir Knox, chuaigh Proinsias Knox, mac Uilliam Knox ó Chaisleán Ria, chun cónaithe sa Mhaighean tar éis a phósadh le Dorothea Annesley. Deirtear gur mharaigh saighdiúir darbh ainm Knox an t-abha deireanach ar Mhaighne le linn an mhainistir a scrios. Bhí codanna den mhainistir fós ináitrithe agus rinne Proinsias sciathán den mhainistir a athmhúnlú agus chónaigh sé ann. Tar éis do theaghlach Knox an Maigh a fhágáil, cheannaigh muintir Kirkwood a bhfuil baint acu le hOileán Bhartra in aice láimhe an mhaoin. Go luath sna 1900idí rinne réamhtheachtaithe Oifig na nOibreacha Poiblí oibreacha chun an struchtúr a chobhsú, ní fhéadfaí rochtain a dheonú ag an am seo ach amháin trí eochair a iarraidh ó theachín an fheighlí. Le céad bliain anuas, ó chuaigh an dá mhainistir faoi chúram Oifig na nOibreacha Poiblí, chinntigh a gcúram agus a n-aire leanúnach le blianta fada anuas gur mhair na struchtúir ársa seo agus go leanann siad ag cur spéise orthu siúd go léir a thugann cuairt orthu.
An Clár Oideachais i gCaisleán Bhaile Átha Cliath
Ó seoladh ár gClár Oideachais i mBealtaine 2023, tá iarracht déanta againn rochtain a chumasú ar bhailiúchán ealaíne agus stair Chaisleán Bhaile Átha Cliath. Próiseas foghlama a bhí ann ar fad, agus ceann a bhfuil muid ar bís a bheith páirteach ann.
Sular dearadh agus tógadh an Seomra Oideachais i Meán Fómhair 2023, bhí ar ár n-ardáin meán sóisialta faisnéis a scaipeadh ar bhealach a bhí inrochtana agus tarraingteach. Roghnaigh muid pictiúir, teicstílí agus dealbha ar leith chun téarmaíocht ealaíne mar chiaroscuro, stucówork, memento mori agus contrapposto a phlé ar bhealach a bhí furasta le húsáid. Chuireamar saothair ealaíne faoi leith i ngrúpaí le chéile faoi théamaí mar Éin sa Chnuasach, Art Inspired Recipes agus L’Influence Française chun déimeagrafaic éagsúla lucht féachana a léiriú. Chruthaíomar buaicphointe Tráth na gCeist ar ár leathanach Instagram ag spreagadh úsáideoirí a dtuiscint ar bhailiúchán ealaíne agus stair Chaisleán Bhaile Átha Cliath a thástáil. I mí Eanáir 2024, d’fhógraíomar Astrology mar théama an Chláir Oideachais agus tá ár gcinntí maidir le ceardlanna a thacaíonn le teaghlaigh agus poist ar na meáin shóisialta mar thaca leis sin i rith na bliana. Ba dhóigh thaitneamhach an téama le stair an tsuímh a fhiosrú, ag spreagadh naisc nua le déanamh idir saothair ealaíne.
Since May 2023, the Education Team has designed and delivered over 100 individual events as part of our Education Programme. In this year alone, we delivered over 70 free educational events on site, including talks, tours, workshops and demonstrations. In August, we hosted 13 educational events, 11 of which took place during National Heritage Week 2024. It was a wonderfully diverse programme made possible by the talents of the Guiding Team and external collaborators. From Apollo Marks inspired by the stuccowork ceiling of the Apollo Room to Origami Skull Bookmarks inspired by painterly depictions of St. Jerome, we had lots of fun and engaging activities to offer members of the public. We ended theweek on a high, celebrating Wild Child Day with the delivery of a Bird-Box Workshop inspired by those hanging in the trees of the Dubh Linn Gardens. Following the success of the Focal an Lae social media posts and our Turais Trí Ghaeilge, we launched our very first Caint agus Comhrá session in October
2024. This drop-in session will be a monthly event in the Education Room of Dublin Castle. The purpose is to provide a space and framework to speak Irish in a comfortable, relaxed and historically rich setting. It’s another mode of engagement and one that we’re excited to offer as part of our Education Programme. Based on the popularity of our Respond to the Artwork workshops, we’re continuing to adopt ‘slow-looking’ strategies in leading our family-friendly and dementia-inclusive sessions at Dublin Castle. These workshops offer participants space, time and guidance in discussing the art elements as
they relate to chosen artworks in the collection, before completing an appropriate art activity. It’s a format that captures active learning across all age groups, and one that we’re keen to develop in upcoming years. Currently in development is our Educational Video Series, which will provide insights into selected artworks in the collection. These short videos will assist teachers, students and members of the public in learning about the collection in a way that is art-specific and student friendly. We’d like these videos to be part of an ongoing project that complements the Art History curriculum at post-primary level. We recently launched our Painting Pursuit Educational Resource, a trail
that celebrates the artwork of the State Apartments and challenges detectives of all ages to decipher clues hidden in the paintings. It’s been a fun project to lead, and will complement both the ‘Death in the Collection’ tour and ‘Secret Agent’ tour at Dublin Castle. Moving forward, we’re excited about the inclusion of a Portfolio Preparation Course and regular drawing sessions within our Education Programme.
Eascraíonn an tsuim seo as taithí phearsanta ag staidéar agus ag teagasc líníocht bhreathnóireachta sa seomra ranga. Agus an t-ádh linn go bhfuil dealbha teilgthe plástair den scoth againn sa bhailiúchán, tá go leor scóip ann le ranganna Líníocht Bargue agus Cast a fhorbairt sna blianta atá le teacht. Ar deireadh thiar, ba mhaith liom mo bhuíochas a ghabháil leis an bhfoireann i gCaisleán Bhaile Átha Cliath as a dtacaíocht leanúnach d’obair na Foirne Oideachais. Ó bunaíodh ár gClár in 2023, tá dlús curtha leis an dul chun cinn tríd an Seomra Oideachais a thógáil, trí shaineolas na Foirne Treorach agus tríd an méid a chuireann staraithe agus ealaíontóirí seachtracha leis. Tá sé ar fad sa tóir ar chlár tarraingteach imeachtaí, agus táimid ag tnúth le tuilleadh deiseanna foghlama a fhorbairt do dhaoine amach anseo.
Medb of Connaught
Queen. Warrior. Goddess. Medb of Connaught was many things within Celtic mythology.
As Queen, Medb ruled over the province of Connaught, overseeing her kingdom
from her seat of power at Rathcroghan.
As Warrior, Medb raised an army against Ulster to ensure she would gain possession of the Brown Bull of Cooley.
As Goddess, Medb represented fertility and sovereignty, offering men the power of kings through marriage.
With the mounds of Rathcroghan, and the cairn at Knocknarea said to symbolise parts of Medb’s body, it signifies the legacy that she left within Irish pseudohistory - her powerful connection to the land that is written in the earth itself.
According to mythology, the epic battle known as the Táin Bó Cúailnge (Battle of Cooley) was incited during a seemingly innocuous conversation between Medb and her then husband/consort, Ailill Mac Máta. What started as a bed-time discussion turned into one of the most brutal fights in pseudohistory.
“In Ailill’s herd there was a magnificent bull called the White-horned and Medb had none to touch it.”
As comparisons are made between the couple over who has the greater fortune, the most prized possessions, they realise they are equal in all things…bar one. Where Ailill is in possession of Finnbennach, the great White-Horned bull (who was once owned by Medb), Medb has nothing to match.
Knowing that the only way to surpass Ailill’s fortune is to obtain the Brown Bull of Cúailnge, Medb rallies troops of men behind her from her seat at Rathcroghan, and goes to war against Ulster when the bull’s owner refuses to hand him over.
There are two ways of reading Medb’s actions here:
The first is to see her decision to go to war as juvenile and trivial, risking people’s lives for mere belongings, just to win a competition against her husband.
The second, however, provides us with a more nuanced depiction of Medb’s character, as Queen, but also as a woman. According to Sylvia Brinton Perera, Medb’s decision to go to war signifies a determination to maintain independence, to retain and protect her power over herself and her land, from what Perera calls “the rising patriarchal Celtic aristocracy.”
Ailill receives his power, his authority, via his marriage to Medb; without her, his rule is not legitimate, demonstrating the influence that Medb holds. As the recognised Sovereign of Connaught, her authority over the lands of Rathcroghan and its people is power that Medb does not want to lose. Her being is so tied to Rathcroghan that her bodily functions actually alter the landscape when her menstrual blood creates the earthwork channels known as the Mucklaghs.
The Táin Bó Cúailnge symbolises Medb’s fight to remain equal to her husband and retain the lands that are so much a part of herself.
“ I have never heard in all Ireland of a province run by a woman except this one.”
Ailill confirms the power that Medb has within Connaught with this statement, which is why only Medb can determine who becomes king through a sacred marriage ritual.
This ritual involved the chosen man becoming so drunk that it would grant him access to the spiritual world, thus receiving the knowledge required to rule a kingdom. The word mead has a close correlation with Medb’s name, meaning ‘drunken one’ or ‘she who makes drunk’.
Perera notes that in other folklore, as well as Celtic, the goddess of sovereignty is not only the one serving the drink, but is also the drink herself, therefore giving her future king the power and knowledge to rule alongside her divine self. Only those kings selected by Medb were recognised by the people.
However, if the king was no longer fulfilling his duty, both as ruler and husband to Medb, the failure would be reflected in the land. Land that Medb is visible in.
At Rathcroghan, its earthworks and mounds reflect Medb’s bodily fluids and her physical form.
At Tara, where Medb’s father was King, the henge Rath Maeve is named after her (which could also refer to her predecessor Medb Lethderg).
At Knocknarea, Queen Medb’s Cairn is a symbol of the life/death cycle, representative of pregnancy in its rounded shape among the mountains, while also being Medb’s supposed resting place.
According to Gerard Mulligan, parts of Rathcroghan may have been deliberately created to represent Medb, “allowing the king to be ‘physically’ close to the goddess” even when she is not there, always maintaining that connection to his source of power.
The reach of Medb’s power across Ireland cannot be underestimated. Whether as Queen, Warrior, or Goddess, Medb holds sway over kings, wars, and the landscape. Despite warring opinions of her character, Medb is one of the best known ‘players’ in Celtic Myth, to the point that many Irish monuments are associated with her name.
It makes it hard to deny that Medb of Connaught is anything but legendary.
Sources:
Brinton Perera, Sylvia. Celtic Queen Maeve and Addiction: an archetypal perspective, 2001.
Dictionary of Irish Biography. Medb Chruachna, contributed by John Carey.
Lehmann, Edyta, 2008. ‘And thus I will it’: Queen Medh and the Will to Power. Jstor.
Mackillop, James. A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology, 2004.
Mulligan, Gerard, 2011. Archaeology and Myth: a consideration of the ancient royal site of Rathcroghan. Jstor.
Neolithic Cúil Irra, Co. Sligo – Knocknarea / Carrowmore / Carns Hill. 2017. Jstor.
Ó Cathsaigh, Tomás, 2002. “Táin Bó Cúailnge” in Coire Sois, The Cauldron of Knowledge. Ed. Matthieu Boyd. Jstor.
Waddell, John, 1983. Rathcroghan: a royal site in Connacht. Jstor.
Waddell, John, 2009. Rathcroghan, Co. Roscommon: where the Táin Bó Cúailnge began. Jstor.
Wollemi Pine – exciting developments in the conservation of one of the world’s most endangered trees
In a world in which extinction and loss of plants and animals is a recurrent and depressing theme there are occasional glimmers of hope and examples of extraordinary survival. One such was the Wollemi Pine (Wollemia nobilis) of Australia, discovered alive in a remote gorge of Wollemi National Park and previously only known from 20 million year old fossils.
In 1994, David Noble, an Australian botanist, came across a group of trees in a remote gorge in Wollemi National Park in New South Wales, just 150km from Sydney. This chance discovery of the Wollemi pine, a distant relative of the Monkey Puzzle tree was a major botanical sensation. It was soon realised that it represented a wholly unknown living relative of a group of fossil trees dating back over 200 million year. The fact that only 89 individuals were known underlined their extreme vulnerability.
A major propagation project to replicate the trees and send them across the globe followed, with all proceeds being channelled into conservation measures within the Wollemi National Park of the Blue Mountains. As a conservation measure this has proved extremely successful in both ensuring the species survival, and discouraging collectors to search for the tree as it is now so readily available.
Unfortunately the risks of fungal disease to the native grove of 89 trees, as well the rise in bush fire intensity and prevalence, means that its long term security is still uncertain. Whilst we have been growing this species in Ireland for the past 19 years, both in botanic gardens and in private gardens, the planting of twelve new trees in Ireland in late 2023 represents an
exciting new chapter in conserving the Wollemi Pine.
Recent advances in DNA technology have, for first time, allowed the recognition of six distinct genetic strains amongst the surviving 89 wild trees. Formerly the population had been considered to lack any diversity at a genetic level.
In 2022, 174 young Wollemi pine trees, representing the six genetic strains grown by the Royal Botanic Gardens of Sydney were shipped from Australia. The trees were carefully looked after at Forestry England’s tree nursery at Bedgebury Pinetum in south east England. Six trees remain at Bedgebury, while the remaining trees have been distributed to 28 botanic gardens across the UK and Europe.
In 2023 the John F. Kennedy Arboretum, Co. Wexford, and the Kilmacurragh Botanic Gardens in Co. Wicklow were selected at suitable sites for this global conservation initiative. Twelve trees, representing two sets of each genetic strain were donated to the Office of Public Works – six to the JFK Arboretum and six to the Kilmacurragh Botanic Gardens. The twelve Wollemi Pine trees will be monitored, in collaboration/co-ordination with the other 28 European sites for the meta-collection.
The climate crisis means that across all continents many trees like Wollemi pines are facing urgent threats to their survival. We know that 34% of conifers are now endangered and our ongoing work to research, propagate and save tree species is more vital than ever. Growing genetically diverse plantings of these trees is vital to maximise their adaptive ability to climate change and crucial for the meaningful long-term success of restoration projects.
The importance of the JFK Arboretum has gained international standing in recent years. In addition to our participation in the Wollemi Pine meta-collection project the arboretum has made signification contributions to the International Conifer Conservation Programme – a global leader in study and conservation of endangered confer trees. In 2022 over 10 acres of new planting established some of the world’s most endangered conifers at the arboretum. Comprising of 1300 trees, representing 24 endangered conifer species the planting is the single largest planted collection of the International Conifer Conservation Programme in the world.
John F Kennedy Arboretum is one of the 32 National Historic Properties under the care of the Office of Public Works (OPW). Dr Matthew Jebb is the Director of the National Botanic Gardens sites including John F Kennedy Arboretum. Curator Dr Darach Lupton, Site Foreman Kevin Naughton and HEO Delia Hickey oversee the management and operations of the site.
Biodiversity Week 2024 – Homes for Wildlife
Welcoming National Biodiversity Week, Kieran O’Donnell T.D., Minister of State with Responsibility for the Office of Public Works, said:
I am delighted to welcome the arrival of National Biodiversity Week- celebrated by the OPW with over 40 events taking place at more than 12 of our heritage sites nationwide from 17 May to 26 May. Families around the country are spoiled for choice this National Biodiversity Week – there’s truly something for everyone, young and old. We are proud to be able to showcase our rich natural heritage across these sites, which are maintained by OPW staff to the highest standards of excellence. I wish to commend them for the hard work they undertake year-round and for organising such engaging and creative events across our magnificent historic houses, estates, castles, gardens, parks and prehistoric monuments.
Families will find plenty to enjoy across the week, with a range of workshops, tours, trails and other fun activities on offer. Other events include in depth talks on biodiversity and conservation by leading experts. A full day of family-friendly fun is on offer at Céide Fields, Co. Mayo, where cliff-side telescope viewings, guided tours of the blanket bog and a wildlife scavenger hunt are open to the public free of charge.
Lorcán Scott, Biodiversity Officer at the Office of Public Works, said:
It is great to see such a diverse range of events across OPW sites, celebrating our rich biodiversity that exists throughout the country. Under the OPW’s stewardship, these sites support a myriad of habitats and species that we want to ensure are there for future generations to cherish. The theme for International Day for Biodiversity 2024 is ‘Be part of the Plan,’ with the implementation of our Biodiversity Action Strategy, the OPW is demonstrating we can play our part in addressing the global biodiversity crisis, and the expert work of our gardeners and guides play no small part in this mission.
In John F. Kennedy Arboretum, Co. Wexford, children can learn through play about the wonders of our natural world by crafting a ‘mandala’, a circular design that radiates out symmetrically from its centre, in the heart of the woodland environment. In this interactive workshop, children can use plant materials sourced around the Arboretum, including rhododendron petals, fallen cones and palm leaves, to create their own unique, natural creations.
At Parkes Castle, Co. Leitrim, botanist and ecologist Dr. Dolores Byrne will lead a hands-on, family friendly exploration of the biodiversity around the castle and along the lakeshore at Lough Gill. At the lake, the whole family will learn about the steps we can take to preserve the biodiversity of this essential natural resource. Children will get the opportunity to collect invertebrates on the lakeshore, as well as a chance to meet and get to know Lough Gill’s bugs and fish.
Visitors to Glendalough Monastic Site, Co. Wicklow, can uncover hidden worlds in the biodiversity treasure hunt and be in with a chance to win an OPW Heritage Card. This card provides 12 months of unlimited access to over 50 OPW sites and visitor attractions with guided tours. While at Glendalough, visitors can hear first-hand from OPW guides about the importance of biodiversity in our built and cultural heritage.
These are just a few of the great events we are running for National Biodiversity Week 2024. This calendar of events is sure to engage and educate young children about the ever-growing importance of biodiversity, and the magical range of flora and fauna alongside which we all coexist. There’s a lot for grown-ups to learn as well, with talks and guided tours on offer from key specialists at the ‘International Conifer Conservation Programme’ at the National Botanic Gardens, Kilmacurragh, Co. Wicklow.
Cover image: A female kestrel sits on top of a wedge shaped tomb at Carrowmore Megalithic Cemetery. The iconic outline of Ben Bulben mountain is visible in the backdrop. Photo by Sally Siggins.
